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Paper
Professional Development in a Technological Age: New Definitions, Old Challenges, New Resources
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACHESEffective professional development programs encompass both formal and informal means of supporting ongoing teacher learning. No single approach can build a professional community of learners. Rather, it is useful to think of providing a continuum of possibilities, with opportunities and support for teacher-generated learning, discussion, and reflection offered alongside access to outside knowledge. The operative word is flexibility: flexibility for shaping content and process; flexibility for adapting to individual approaches, needs, and preferences; and flexibility for responding to expanding teacher leadership roles. There are a number of professional development approaches that can introduce and support more collegial, ongoing, and informal contexts for teacher learning overall, and engagement with technology in particular. However, powerful as they are for promoting teacher learning, certain limitations "go with the turf" of many of these approaches. In the section which follows we discuss existing approaches, and their constraints, followed by a section indicating some of the innovative ways in which technologies have been used to handle these constraints.
Formal Processes Workshops and Classes As mentioned at the beginning of this paper, there is a place in professional development for formal learning activities. Well-designed workshops and courses which offer depth and focus, provide adequate opportunities for practice and grappling with ideas, involve doing real work instead of being "talked at," provide opportunities for consultation with colleagues and experts, and make possible follow-up classroom consultation and coaching, can be very effective in imparting new skills to teachers (Little, 1993). Some of the obvious content of training programs involves the "how to" of specific software applications. Teachers greatly benefit from both instruction about and time to explore new tools. Workshops can also encompass a range of activities that would not generally fall under the "training" description. In workshop experiences teachers can themselves experience some of the powerful ways in which technology can support learning:
In these activities, as they see themselves as learners, teachers grow in their understanding of their students' experience of learning. Some of the most successful workshop programs have involved teachers and students learning new tools together. In these settings, teachers and students come to view each other as resources to whom they can turn for assistance when they encounter obstacles. Outside input (such as attending a workshop or a class) must be accompanied by the opportunity to learn through experimentation and self-instruction. Structuring workshops to meet more than once can make it possible for participants to try out new approaches and return to class with questions, comments, and new perceptions (OTA, 1995). Sometimes it makes sense to bring in outside "experts" to introduce teachers to new ideas, approaches, and tools; still, other alternatives are well worth exploring. An increasingly popular strategy has been the "train the trainers" approach, in which selected teachers take part in intensive training and then bring their newfound expertise back to their own school, by providing demonstrations and on-site training to individuals and groups (OTA, 1995). The train the trainers method builds local capacity for leadership and expertise with technology and curriculum. It also provides a rich opportunity for extending the intensive workshop or course experiences of a smaller core group to a wider population of school people at a grassroots level (St. John et al., 1994). One caveat in the train the trainer approach is that potential trainers vary in the time it takes for them to reach a comfort level with new materials, tools, and approaches, and to become ready to formally convey their new learning to others. Furthermore, the time and support provided to these trainers is a key to their ability to pass their learning along to their colleagues.
Constraints of Workshops and Courses Time and place present the major obstacles to the approach which makes use of workshops and courses. Teachers' school days are full, and securing substitutes is expensive for the districts, as well as time consuming for teachers (see SuperSubs box, p. 89). Many workshops are scheduled at the end of the school day when teachers are exhausted and unable to get the most out of a learning experience, or in the evening or on weekends, when family priorities interfere. Summer provides similar scheduling problems: at the end of the school year, teachers are eager for a break, or find too much time elapses between workshop learning and its application in the classroom setting; in late summer many teachers are preoccupied with preparing for the coming school year. It is also difficult to create a schedule and to choose a location that will suit the needs of all teachers and of the workshop/course presenters. Schedules and geographic constraints also place restrictions on the availability of skilled presenters and instructors. Too often workshops are offered en masse, at the convenience of the district, the school, or the presenter, rather than tailored to the needs of individual teachers for just-in-time learning and follow-up as needed. Informal and Job-Embedded Processes Informal and job-embedded processes are essential to support and extend the learning that takes place in workshops and in classes. These can take place on-site or with near and distant colleagues. Among others, such processes include:
Teachers should no longer simply be expected to be passive conduits of the expertise of university-based research. Rather, they should be encouraged to bring their own expertise to bear upon the questions and issues that are important for them (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993). Teachers' questions bring with them a particular quality of immediacy, as they seek to make sense of how theory relates to the concreteness and particularities of actual practice.
One popular approach to supporting the process of inquiry for teachers is action research, which can provide teachers with an opportunity to learn about teaching through their own active research and to share that learning with the wider community of educators. Action research can provide an ideal structure for individuals or groups to conduct research on uses and impact of new technologies, in their classrooms or in the school. Cochran-Smith and Lytle define teacher research as "systematic, intentional inquiry by teachers about their own school and classroom work" (1993, p. 24). In this systematic process, teachers identify areas of interest, collect data, analyze the findings, and make changes based on their findings. Though teachers often form action research groups which meet on an ongoing basis, some individuals research questions on their own. Some argue that the most important element of teacher research is what happens over time, when findings are applied to similar situations and with subsequent classes (Corey, 1953). Others assert that, over and above improving individual practice, the aim of action research initiatives must be to add to the knowledge base about teaching and research itself for the educ ation community (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993). For some teachers, satisfaction comes with arriving at a deeper understanding of their own practice. For others, regular meetings with a group of fellow teacher researchers brings stimulation, support, and a sense of common direction. Still others are empowered by reaching the wider audience of the educational research community. In common for all is a shared tone of intellectual inquiry. Teachers' participation as learners in subject area study groups has often deepened their understanding of content and fueled their practice, supporting their students' efforts to make sense of the subject they are exploring.
A tremendous synergy between in-classroom and beyond-the-classroom learning can be created when teachers and students, together and independently, engage in active inquiry about content.
This approach can be very powerful in supporting teachers as they learn to use technology in the context of collaborative inquiry about a given content area. Constraints of Inquiry Again, time and location are often limiting factors for inquiry-based approaches to professional development. Besides the need to schedule regular group meetings, it can be difficult for members to stay connected during the stretches of time between scheduled meetings. It is difficult to sustain these activities, often considered "extras" in the face of more pressing daily teaching commitments. For study groups in particular, the need for knowledgeable leadership to be locally available is also a constraint.
Observation as an approach to professional development is based on a belief that vigorous and durable relationships between teachers can have a demonstrable effect on beliefs and practices of teaching, and that feedback from peers can play a significant role in learning. In this process, which is frequently referred to as peer coaching, teachers pair up and take turns visiting each other's classrooms. On the basis of an initial shared discussion of theory and practice, in which they agree about criteria for classroom observations, participating teachers keep anecdotal records of what teachers and students said during the observation. In a follow-up conference they discuss the data about teaching and learning they observed in each other's classrooms. This process can benefit both the person being observed and the observer: the person being observed profits from having "another set of eyes" in the room who can provide feedback about actual processes and experiences in the classroom; the observer benefits both from seeing and reflecting on a colleague's practice, and from the process of communicating about the content of the observation. An additional benefit is that the reciprocity of coaching and modeling helps teachers develop their identities as both teachers and learners. Visits to other schools involved in similar initiatives can also serve as productive contexts for observation.
Constraints of Observation Several constraints limit possibilities of observation as a widely used approach to professional development, and cross-site visits in particular. It requires availability of the observer during class hours, requiring hiring substitutes for time away from the classroom. Options are limited to sites that are close by, which may not provide a range of desirable observation settings. Additionally, circumstances do not always make it possible for observers to see what they had hoped to observe during limited visits. In an effort to support new teachers (or an experienced teacher who is making a transition from another subject, grade level, building, or community), a number of schools have paired novice and experienced teachers in an approach referred to as mentoring. New teachers gain support in the form of "opening doors," guidance, access to a positive role model, and a relationship in which it is safe to share doubts and concerns (Newton et al., 1994). For their part, mentors learn as they listen to issues experienced by first year teachers. To demonstrate and explain their practice in helpful ways, they need to reflect on themselves and their beliefs about teaching. And they gain an increased sense of collegiality and the satisfaction of observing their proteges growth and the recognition that comes with it (Newton et al., 1994). In highlighting the human link in learning, the process of mentoring attempts from the beginning of novices' teaching careers to set a norm of learning from and with colleagues, in the hope of establishing habits that will be maintained for the rest of their professional lives. Constraints of Mentoring Again, time is a constraint, resulting from the tightly scheduled teaching day. Considerable time is required for nurturing constructive relationships between mentors and novices. It may not always be possible to find ideal mentoring matches within a geographic community. Working Alongside a Curriculum Integration Specialist or Technology Specialist Regardless of the innovation, support and coaching must follow initial learning experiences. Underlying the role of a curriculum integration specialist or a technology specialist is an understanding that not only novice teachers, but all teachers, require assistance and support as they develop ways to make meaningful use of new tools in their classrooms. A curriculum integration specialist can provide "ongoing support for people entering the profession, renewal for more experienced teachers, and a vehicle for incorporating teachers' views into general school improvement planning" (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987, p. 83). When these curriculum or technology integration specialists are teachers themselves who understand classroom culture and the demands of teaching, their guidance is more relevant and credible to the teachers they work with. When familiar with the regular work in classrooms, these specialists, sometimes referred to as advising teachers or coaches, can help teachers see how technologies can enrich and support learning. They can also help teachers organize and manage technology-based school environments and can play an invaluable role in generating ideas and problem solving with teachers. One role for the curriculum or technology integration specialist involves collaboration with the classroom teacher: together they bring their combined expertise to team teach a lesson incorporating a new curriculum or technology tool into the classroom. Each brings an area of expertise to the task. Constraints of Working Alongside Specialist This approach to professional development depends on the availability of a skilled specialist, who has an intimate knowledge of both classroom culture and of the innovations being supported. It also requires that that person be available to work with teachers in classrooms during school hours, and to meet with them outside of teaching hours. Although some schools and districts have set aside funding for this kind of support, it is expensive and the individuals are often stretched thin across many schools. Often their time is spent working directly with students rather than in support of teachers. More fundamentally, there is often a split between the expertise needed for curriculum integration with technology: curriculum specialists may not be well versed in current technology applications, and technology specialists may not have a comprehensive grounding in technology applications. In an ideal situation, the two skills should be found in one specialist, but this is rarely the case. Use of a Learning Center or Demonstration Center Also known as teachers' centers, learning centers provide teachers with materials, human resources, and an environment for personal and professional growth. Often learning centers are staffed by advisors or resource teachers with practical experience to offer in the areas of curriculum development and instructional techniques. Teachers come to these centers voluntarily and on their own schedule, to develop materials and projects and to learn from and alongside one another. Some school districts have established technology resource centers, where teachers can preview and explore different hardware and software options and consult with and be trained by experts about their uses in education. When teachers see in their students the effects of bringing new approaches and uses of technology into their classrooms, they gain confidence. Many become eager to share their enthusiasm with others in their immediate environment. Some schools have developed on-site demonstration centers, where interested teachers can avail themselves of the opportunity to observe these ideas and tools being applied by more experienced colleagues. In these centers, teachers can work together on collaborative projects using technology and help one another as they proceed. The collegial peer support can be very valuable to teachers as they develop their own confidence and expertise. Constraints of Using Learning or Demonstration Center The off-site nature of many learning centers poses an obstacle to easy access. Staffing and scheduling requirements to assure that centers are open during most teachers' available hours can require creative planning and financing. Furthermore, many schools do not have space available that can be devoted to an on-site learning center. With classroom spaces at a premium in many schools, rooms set aside for teacher support may be considered a luxury. Similarly, pressures to spend available technology funds for computers in the classrooms or labs for students can make it difficult to set aside funding for high quality technologies for teachers' exclusive use.
Subject-specific collaboratives or communities of practice make it possible for teachers to communicate and collaborate with colleagues, to deepen their knowledge of subject, content, and instruction, and to play leadership roles in educational reform (Little, 1993). According to Lieberman and McLaughlin (1992) successful collaboratives (which can be organized around subject matter, teaching methods, school improvement, or restructuring efforts) share several common features in that they:
Constraints of Teacher Collaboratives In the past, networks have been bound by geographic realities, limiting the opportunities for teachers to form affinity groups with like-minded colleagues. When networks require meeting in real time and at a mutually convenient location, teachers are limited in their options. Face-to-face discourse, though important, can be negatively affected by constraints of scheduling and distance. Partnerships with Universities or Businesses
Partnerships between schools and outside organizations such as universities, research and development organizations, and businesses come in varied forms. They are based on an understanding that each group can contribute to and learn from its collaborating institution. Professional development is often a centerpiece of those partnerships.
Partnerships between businesses and schools have also provided teachers with training in technology. Such opportunities support the efforts of teachers to learn ways in which technologies can be useful in their own lives, as well as in their teaching. For example, the U.S. Tech Corps model described by McConachie offers technical training support to teachers from local business personnel (see p. 119).
Constraints of Partnerships Partnerships depend on the proximity of collaborating institutions. In many cases, schools are located far from a teacher education institution that could provide professional development assistance or collaboration. In other cases, local schools and colleges of education may be ill-equipped or lacking expertise or interest in contributing faculty time to professional development. Similarly, local business may not be available or eager to participate in time-consuming partnerships with schools. Business use of technology also may be very different from school applications, minimizing the opportunity for sharing expertise with teachers. Other Ways Of Supporting Informal Learning There are a number of other ways in which teachers work in informal contexts that offer learning opportunities. Many teachers have found that writing helps them reflect on their practice. Others have become involved in small group collaborations around particular projects or strands of learning. Still others have formed reflective practice teams. For many teachers, team teaching provides a context for sharing reflections on practice as they work with the ongoing realities, successes, and challenges of teaching. Teachers also learn through their activities such as developing curriculum, designing programs, planning for technology implementation, previewing and selecting hardware and software, and engaging in systematic school improvement processes. Through reading, discussion, observation, training, or involvement in school improvement processes, teachers can acquire specific knowledge or skills about the issue being examined, and develop broad-based understandings through the experience (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990).
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